International Journal of Coercion, Abuse, and Manipulation Volume 9 2026 38
more challenging for coercive control to be effectively
addressed. When survivors encounter coercion and
control within a system, they are often re-traumatized,
not believed, and face biases and victim-blaming,
which harms them further. This institutional betrayal
can be seen as a form of post-separation abuse, co-
occurring with direct abuse by the coercive controller
or coercively controlling group (Goldstein, 2014 Hill,
2020 Smith &Freyd, 2014 Stark, 2007).
The PsychoSocial Quicksand Model™ (PSQM) (Amber,
2022) was designed to quickly and effectively address
the systems’ shortcomings and be more universally
applicable across contexts, including via the creation
of engaging and accessible training for survivors and
professionals. The PSQM synthesizes research and
theory from trauma and recovery (Herman, 2015),
state-sanctioned violence (Delgado &Melvin 2020),
human trafficking (Amnesty International, 1994),
and extremist groups and war (Lifton, 2014) along
with Stark’s (2007) framework of coercive control and
Johnson’s (2008) “intimate terrorism” within domestic
abuse. Using learning styles, metaphor, and alliteration,
the PSQM aims to increase awareness of coercive
control, validate, empower, and motivate survivors,
and increase collaboration between and motivation
for professionals to transform systems. This is done
through the seven PSQM videos, which are described
in the table below.
Table 1. PSQM videos
VIDEO
#
TITLE DESCRIPTION
Video 1 Coercive Control: The Big
Picture
Overview of the PSQM &videos
Video 2 Coercive Control: The Invisible
Pandemic
Applying context to current myths &misconceptions
Video 3 Coercive Control: Research &
Theory
Foundational research &theory of the PSQM
Video 4 Coercive Control: Know The
Signs
The doubles &DARVO
Video 5 Coercive Control: Signs of
Trauma
Reframing victim-blaming &shaming narratives
Video 6 Coercive Control: Systemic
Oppression
The role of systems in perpetuating &escalating coercive
control
Video 7 Coercive Control: Recap &
Solutions
Centering survivors &collaborating for positive change
Metaphor has been used widely in therapeutic
approaches and interventions (Burns, 2007). It is
considered a way in which both the therapist and client
can use language in processing aspects of psychological
distress. The metaphor deployed in the PSQM is
also aligned with the psychoeducational content of
the model, something which has been shown to be
efficacious as a form of treatment for trauma survivors
(Bass et al., 2016). The PQSM additionally utilizes
learning styles and alliteration to speed comprehension
and improve recall (Boers, Lindstromberg, &
Eyckmans, 2012 Gilakjani, 2012).
Coercive control is complex and nuanced. Additionally,
the numerous systems tasked with detecting,
intervening in, and preventing coercive control are
siloed, rife with biases and misconceptions, further
complicating coordination, motivation, and training
(Hill, 2020 Stark, 2007 Stark &Hester, 2019). Law
enforcement has the single-incidence model of physical
violence. Child protection relies on failure to protect
policies, and in family court, a 50/50 presumption of
child custody is often presumed (Hill, 2020 Goldstein,
2014 Myhill &Hoyle, 2016). These outdated policies
and procedures not only prevent victims from obtaining
justice and protection but also result in ignoring the
coercive controller as the cause, making perpetrator
accountability nearly non-existent and re-traumatizing
victims, causing exponential harm (Goldstein, 2014

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Kate Amber and Roderick Dubrow-Marshall |An Investigation into the Efficacy of the PsychoSocial Quicksand Model™
Hill, 2020 Stark, 2007).
Despite growing awareness of coercive control
and strong links to domestic violence homicide
(Monckton-Smith, 2022 Domestic Violence Death
Review Team, 2020 Parliament of New South Wales
Joint Select Committee on Coercive Control, 2021),
the passage of legislation has not led to widespread
improvements in implementation (Bishop, 2016
Stark &Hester, 2019 Walklate &Fitz-Gibbon, 2021).
Coercive control’s complexity, combined with its
invisibility, makes raising awareness and educating the
public and professionals challenging (Fontes, 2015
Myhill &Hoyle, 2016 Stark, 2007 Weiner, 2017 ).
Coercive control reporting is increasing which will
likely continue (Mlambo-Ngcuka, 2020). Our already
overburdened systems need solutions that can slow,
and eventually reverse, the increased prevalence that
this reporting reflects. While progress is being made,
we must do more (Stark &Hester, 2019).
All parts of the system—support services,
police, courts—are overwhelmed by the
number of family violence incidents now
reported. Services are not currently equipped
to meet this high level of demand.
(Mlambo-Ngcuka, 2020)
Therefore, a new method of training is needed, one
that addresses coercive control across contexts, utilizes
a system’s approach to detection, intervention, and
prevention, and can be implemented easily, quickly,
and effectively across multi-disciplinary systems. The
PSQM adopts the perspective that coercive control
occurs in contexts other than domestic abuse and
expands the concept by identifying it as a pattern of
behavior within groups and systems, as well as in
relationships (Hassan, 1988 Hill, 2020 Smith &Freyd,
2014 Stark, 2007 Stein, 2016). The PSQM further
establishes and defines coercive control as the pattern
of behaviors foundational to oppression, positioning
it as a worldwide issue impacting everyone. It also
simplifies the complexity of coercive control globally,
making it accessible to all. The PQSM was developed
precisely to achieve these aims, and this research study
was undertaken to test the validity and efficacy of the
model in these regards.
Methodology
A mixed-methods study was developed to test the
PSQM, using a series of seven training videos lasting
between ten to fifteen minutes each. Ethical approval
for this study was granted by the University of Salford
School of Health and Society Ethics Panel. The videos
focused on educating and raising awareness for
professionals within the systems tasked with protecting
victims from the strategic and oppressive pattern of
coercive control. The study group comprised self-
identified mental health, law enforcement, and legal
system professionals (labeled professionals for the
study), as well as survivors of coercive control by an
individual (labeled intimate partner violence) and/
or coercively controlling groups (labeled cults). The
investigation into the PSQM’s efficacy and validity
proceeded to determine the following research
questions and objectives:
1. To what extent can the PSQM be validated as a
model that:
• Validates survivors’ experiences
• Empowers survivors
• Inspires survivors
• Overcomes professional bias
• Motivates professionals to fill systemic gaps
• Educates professionals quickly on the detection
and prevention of coercive control
2. To what extent does the above evidence for validity
of the model indicate that the PSQM has the potential
to:
• Prevent coercive control through education
• Hold perpetrators accountable through more
effective policies
• Save money and lives
Participants were recruited via professional contacts,
social media, websites, and email distributed by
relevant organizations. 451 people registered an interest
(via an online form), and 59 completed the study. After
completing an online participant information sheet
and consent form, participants were categorized into
seven groups based on their status as professionals
and/or survivors of intimate partner violence, cults, or
both (see Table 1 for the seven groups).