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methods of Thought Reform listed above, and use them to various degrees. An argument
could be made that mainstream religions and Cognitive Behavioral psychologists use
methods of thought control to a degree. Mainstream religions may also include some of the
features defined as characteristics of cults as well. The presence of selected characteristics
or less coercive indoctrination alone does not necessarily define a community as a cult. This
leaves a subjective quality to the identification of unhealthy spiritual communities and cults.
As treatment practitioners (as opposed to policy developers), it is unnecessary for us to
develop a rigid definition of USCs to impose upon organizations. Rather, information about
cults‘ characteristics, models of persuasion and Thought Reform better serve us as stimuli
with which to explore with our clients the nature and intensity of their perceptions of their
communities. By providing information about experiences common to many ex-members of
USCs, clients have an opportunity to reflect upon those characteristics meaningful to them.
Factual Information And Healing From USC Involvement
There is no doubt that the two thousand or more groups regarded as cults (Schwartz &
Kaslow, 2001) with two to three million members (Bloch &Shor, 1989) and the possibly
greater number of USCs encompass a breadth of styles and unique rituals. Clearly no pre-
prepared handouts could capture the range of issues of importance to all groups. Still, many
of the ex-members present questions and concerns around common issues (Hassan, 1990
Singer, 1996 Langone, 1993). By increasing their cognitive understanding of these issues,
some ex-members are able to find perspectives with which they can better understand their
involvement in USCs and often reduce their feelings of guilt and shame. The topics
described below for inclusion as prepared handouts encompass some issues identified by
others (Hassan, 1990 Singer, 1996 Langone, 1993) and some issues associated with the
stories to be included in the group treatment approach. The intent of the handouts is to
provide information, not answers, so that the clients may come to their own conclusions.
Presentation of multiple viewpoints requiring their judgment will likely be at variance with
their experience within USCs.
What Defines a Spiritual Group as a “Cult?”
Depending on their own stage in the healing process, many ex-members of USCs may wish
to explore the ways in which their community provided an environment in which they were
able to grow, and other ways in which it contributed to trauma and was a barrier to their
personal development. Not all clients will be ready to consider both positive and negative
aspects of their experiences at any given time, though their emotions may be complex and
include ambiguity. Exposure to descriptions of common features of cults may assist clients
in reflecting on the negative aspects of their groups, help them to normalize their reactions,
and affirm critical thoughts about the group that may have been long discouraged and
suppressed during their group membership.
In addition to the definition of cults provided above (Langone, 1993), use of more than one
characterization may provide clients alternate perspectives and vocabularies for comparison.
Carol Giambalvo has the following list of characteristics included on her website.
What Are Some Characteristics of a Cult?
 Authoritarian in their power structure
 Totalitarian in their control of the behavior of their members
 Pyramidal structure
 Uses thought reform techniques
 Isolation of members (physical and/or psychological isolation) from society
 Uses deception in recruiting and/or fund raising
 Promotes dependence of the members on the group

Cultic Studies Journal, Vol. 18, 2001, Page 77
 Totalitarian in their world view
 Uses mind altering techniques (chanting, meditation, hypnosis and various forms of
repetitive actions) to stop normal critical thinking
 Appear exclusive and innovative
 Charismatic or messianic leader who is self-appointed and has a special mission in life
 Controls the flow of information
 Instills a fear of leaving the group. (Giambalvo, 2000)
It would also be important to stress that no list of characteristics provides an absolute
definition. An individual may feel betrayed or traumatized by participation in a community
that has a subset of these characteristics or invokes these characteristics in greater or
lesser degree. After surviving the extremes of a concentration camp, Viktor Frankl said,
―…suffering completely fills the human soul and consciousness, no matter whether the
suffering is great or little. Therefore the ‗size‘ of human suffering is absolutely relative‖
(1963, p. 70). Our clients need not discount the severity of their USC involvement due to
comparison with any external factors.
Who Joins a Cult?
At one time, it was believed that cult members tended to be middle class young adults,
rejecting materialism or feeling otherwise dissatisfied or unfulfilled by the mainstream
options around them (Schwartz &Kaslow, 1979). It has also been said that individuals are
more vulnerable to cults when they are in periods of life transitions due to changes in
relationships, jobs, or moving (Whitsett, 1992). More recently, there have been indications
that cults have extended their recruiting to additional groups including the elderly and
business executives (Schwartz &Kaslow, 2001). A credible perspective in the literature
indicates that, while there are factors that increase vulnerability, anyone can be at risk due
to the sophisticated techniques employed by cults (Singer, 1996). Singer reported that two-
thirds of cult members are from normal functioning families demonstrating age appropriate
behavior when they joined the cult only five to six percent had major psychological
difficulties (1996, p. 17).
In presenting information to clients about those who join cults, positive factors may also be
included. For clients who perceive only self-critical reasons for their USC participation,
affirmation that their motivations for self improvement, perceptions of a spiritual calling,
and goals of improving society may be healthy and admirable qualities. Assisting clients in
finding nourishing and constructive expressions of these positive qualities enables the same
qualities to be drawn upon in the healing process.
Techniques Used by Spiritual Groups to Recruit Members
There are abundant resources to confirm that cults use sophisticated and deceptive
techniques to recruit members (Singer, 1996 Shaw, 1996 Hassan, 1990 Langone, 1996
reFOCUS, 1998 Giambalvo, 2000 Schwartz &Kaslow, 2001). Many of these same sources
state that anyone can be recruited in a cult (Singer, 1996 Shaw, 1996 Langone, 1993).
For USCs that may be less intentionally coercive in their approach, the inducements and
deceptions may be present but subtle the sense of betrayal can still be traumatic (Cope,
1999). One possible approach to a handout on this topic would be to summarize one of the
autobiographical accounts of a healthy individual‘s recruitment into a cult (Hassan, 1990
Cope, 1999). Another would be to list the techniques used by USCs in recruitment (Singer,
1996 Shaw, 1996 Hassan, 1990 Langone, 1996 reFOCUS, 1998 Giambalvo, 2000
Schwartz &Kaslow, 2001).