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Acknowledgement
This paper is based on a presentation to the Annual International Meeting of the
International Cultic Studies Association at l‘Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, July 14-16,
2005. I want to thank Amalia Blanco who translated the paper into Spanish, so it could be
given as part of a Spanish-language session on terrorism. I also want to thank Dr. Carmen
Almendros for her diligence in helping to organize the conference and the Spanish sessions
in particular.
Arthur A. Dole, Ph.D, ABPP, Professor Emeritus, Psychology in Education Division,
University of Pennsylvania. Dr. Dole is a member of the ICSA Board of Directors and the
Editorial Advisory Board of Cultic Studies Review. He has published studies and presented
papers at professional meetings about the Unification Church and other abusive groups. He
recently contributed a chapter on terrorists and cultists to C. E. Stout's four-volume, The
Psychology of Terrorism. (aadole@prexar.com)
This article is an electronic version of an article originally published in Cultic Studies Review, 2006, Volume 5, Number 2,
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Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2006, Page 33
Terror and Terrorism: A History of Ideas and Philosophical-
Ethical Reflections
Brig. Gen. Edwin R. Micewski, Ph.D.
Director of the Institute for Humanities and Social Sciences
National Defense Academy, Vienna
Abstract
The essay addresses the question of the moral legitimacy of terrorism within
the framework of a brief history of ideas and a moral philosophical
evaluation. The article offers a terminological and epistemological grounding
to the notions of terror and terrorism and provides an historical account of
the phenomenon as it has evolved throughout the ages up to our present
day. It highlights the significance of publicity and other socially relevant
factors to terrorism and outlines both the mental and psychological
characteristics of terrorist activity. The major part of the article is dedicated
to delineating the nature of terrorist violence and its moral and legal
implications. By way of a phenomenology of violence in the context of a
concept of political justice, the fundamental ethical illegitimacy of terrorist
violence is deduced. The article concludes with deliberations on the question
of a universal set of ethics in both world religions and international law. It
sheds light on the demanding dimension of combating terrorism for security
affairs in this new century and particularly underscores the challenge to the
democratic statutory state to fight the potentially inhumane without
disclaiming the principles of humanity embodied in its own social order. The
essay takes into account the current social as well as political debate around
the subject of terrorism in both the United States and Europe, characterized
by confusion and disorientation particularly as regards a moral evaluation of
the terrorist phenomenon. The approach undertaken in this article offers an
argument rooted deeply in Western philosophy as well as political thought,
thus providing urgently needed illumination for further ethical orientation in
both academia and public discourse.
A History of Ideas and Philosophical-Ethical Reflections
The events of September 11, 2001 notwithstanding, neither the UN nor the international
circles of scientists, scholars, and politicians were able to find a consensual definition of
terror and terrorism, terms that are on everybody‘s mind ever since the massive terrorist
attacks hit both Washington D.C. and New York. Moreover, it still seems to be a problem
whether to specify terrorist activities as political manifestations or simply as illegitimate acts
of criminals.
One of the more comprehensive definitions of terrorism was provided by the U.S.
Department of Defense. Its definition describes terrorism as ―the unlawful or threatened use
of force or violence against individuals or property to coerce and intimidate governments or
societies, often to achieve political, religious, or ideological objectives.‖[1] As a point of
departure for the analysis at hand which leaves room for unprejudiced consideration, the
term ‗terrorism‘ shall be defined as ―a strategy whereby violence is used to produce certain
effects in a group of people so as to attain some political end or ends.‖[2] In any case,
however, terrorism always refers to a minority of whatever kind intending to put through
their political and social goals against established political structures by outright use of
violent means.