50 International Journal of Cultic Studies Vol. 4, 2013
1535).78 With the exception of the Reformation,
Bax described all of these movements as failed
revolutions.
Bax, however, did not have a problem with the
idea of religion. He, in fact, felt that a religious
or theological revolution must take place along
with an economic one. Religion was then a
“reflex” of the revolution, just as Marx felt it
was a “reflex of the real world.”79 The
Reformation and concurrent rise of capitalism
substantiated this process, just as atheism and
the concurrent rise of communism would occur
in the next revolution.80
Bax conceded that one could never limit the
development of the human consciousness. He
linked religion to the understanding of those
things that may not be in existence
consequently, art, morality, and philosophy all
contained elements of religion.81 In socialism,
Bax stated “Religion would suppose Humanity
as an eternal object of worship, only taking the
highest ideal conceivable at the time as its then
type.”82 At this point, Bax moved away from
Marx and stated what Engels could never quite
bring himself to say. Bax’s religion of humanity
strayed from strict materialism and condoned
humanity’s ability to conceive of things beyond
the material. This understanding was contrary to
what Marx believed.
Finally, we come to Bernstein. He argued that
religion, for the most part, was a private affair.
Bernstein’s defense of homosexuality depicted
this consideration. In The Judgment of
Abnormal Sexual Intercourse, he began to
question the right of government to inflict its
political and moral imperatives onto the bodies
and actions of others. He noticed the application
of law to be particularly unfair when it dealt
with homosexual and female bodies.83
Conversely, Bernstein was wholly committed to
social democracy’s ability to erode these
78 Bax, German Society at the Close of the Middle Ages Bax, The
Peasants War in Germany Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists.
79 Marx, Capital, p. 478.
80 Bax, “The Modern Revolution II.”
81 Bax, “The Word ‘Religion.’”
82 Bax, “The Word ‘Religion.’” Emphasis in original.
83 Bernstein, “The Judgment of Abnormal Sexual Intercourse.”
ideological imperatives and their sources, such
as religion.84
Therefore, it is difficult to generate a direct,
concise summary of Bernstein’s understanding
of religion. As I stated previously, he did
predict that social democracy, and the general
process of social evolution, selected (in the
evolutionary sense of the word) against
ideologies, such as religion.85 Bernstein also
had, however, a deep attachment to personal
freedoms and civil rights. Therefore, one would
suspect that, if Bernstein advocated for the
freedom of the sexual body (which he did), then
he would do the same for the religious one.
Bernstein also left remnants of Engels’
understanding of religious movements as a guise
for proletarian interests. He cited a multitude of
situations in which he observed religious revolts
taking place for sociopolitical reasons.86 For
Bernstein, however, the “guise” did not function
only to conceal proletarian interests, as it did for
Bax and Engels. Instead, he viewed religious
revolts to function alongside political ones, and
the issues embedded in each of these became
inseparable from each other.87
The Framework
Nonetheless, it would be irresponsible to use
Marxist theory to explain the whole of religion.
Most obviously for our purposes, religion has
not withered away as Marx and the revisionists
predicted.88 In fact, there is evidence of an
increase in religious activity in both the United
States and in Canada.89 Researchers can use the
more nuanced portions of these theories,
however, to better understand particular
religious movements.
Specifically, the theoretical perspectives of
Marx, Engels, Bax, and Bernstein provide a
great deal of insight into the rise and fall of
communal religious movements. If one treats
the works of these theorists as an entire
semicohesive body, then one begins to see the
84 Bernstein, The Preconditions of Socialism, p. 157.
85 Bernstein, The Preconditions of Socialism, p. 157.
86 Bernstein, Cromwell and Communism, pp. 19, 86, 97.
87 Bernstein, Cromwell and Communism, p. 188.
88 Saxton, “Marxism, Labor, and the Failed Critique of Religion,”
p. 308.
89 Bibby, Restless Gods.
1535).78 With the exception of the Reformation,
Bax described all of these movements as failed
revolutions.
Bax, however, did not have a problem with the
idea of religion. He, in fact, felt that a religious
or theological revolution must take place along
with an economic one. Religion was then a
“reflex” of the revolution, just as Marx felt it
was a “reflex of the real world.”79 The
Reformation and concurrent rise of capitalism
substantiated this process, just as atheism and
the concurrent rise of communism would occur
in the next revolution.80
Bax conceded that one could never limit the
development of the human consciousness. He
linked religion to the understanding of those
things that may not be in existence
consequently, art, morality, and philosophy all
contained elements of religion.81 In socialism,
Bax stated “Religion would suppose Humanity
as an eternal object of worship, only taking the
highest ideal conceivable at the time as its then
type.”82 At this point, Bax moved away from
Marx and stated what Engels could never quite
bring himself to say. Bax’s religion of humanity
strayed from strict materialism and condoned
humanity’s ability to conceive of things beyond
the material. This understanding was contrary to
what Marx believed.
Finally, we come to Bernstein. He argued that
religion, for the most part, was a private affair.
Bernstein’s defense of homosexuality depicted
this consideration. In The Judgment of
Abnormal Sexual Intercourse, he began to
question the right of government to inflict its
political and moral imperatives onto the bodies
and actions of others. He noticed the application
of law to be particularly unfair when it dealt
with homosexual and female bodies.83
Conversely, Bernstein was wholly committed to
social democracy’s ability to erode these
78 Bax, German Society at the Close of the Middle Ages Bax, The
Peasants War in Germany Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists.
79 Marx, Capital, p. 478.
80 Bax, “The Modern Revolution II.”
81 Bax, “The Word ‘Religion.’”
82 Bax, “The Word ‘Religion.’” Emphasis in original.
83 Bernstein, “The Judgment of Abnormal Sexual Intercourse.”
ideological imperatives and their sources, such
as religion.84
Therefore, it is difficult to generate a direct,
concise summary of Bernstein’s understanding
of religion. As I stated previously, he did
predict that social democracy, and the general
process of social evolution, selected (in the
evolutionary sense of the word) against
ideologies, such as religion.85 Bernstein also
had, however, a deep attachment to personal
freedoms and civil rights. Therefore, one would
suspect that, if Bernstein advocated for the
freedom of the sexual body (which he did), then
he would do the same for the religious one.
Bernstein also left remnants of Engels’
understanding of religious movements as a guise
for proletarian interests. He cited a multitude of
situations in which he observed religious revolts
taking place for sociopolitical reasons.86 For
Bernstein, however, the “guise” did not function
only to conceal proletarian interests, as it did for
Bax and Engels. Instead, he viewed religious
revolts to function alongside political ones, and
the issues embedded in each of these became
inseparable from each other.87
The Framework
Nonetheless, it would be irresponsible to use
Marxist theory to explain the whole of religion.
Most obviously for our purposes, religion has
not withered away as Marx and the revisionists
predicted.88 In fact, there is evidence of an
increase in religious activity in both the United
States and in Canada.89 Researchers can use the
more nuanced portions of these theories,
however, to better understand particular
religious movements.
Specifically, the theoretical perspectives of
Marx, Engels, Bax, and Bernstein provide a
great deal of insight into the rise and fall of
communal religious movements. If one treats
the works of these theorists as an entire
semicohesive body, then one begins to see the
84 Bernstein, The Preconditions of Socialism, p. 157.
85 Bernstein, The Preconditions of Socialism, p. 157.
86 Bernstein, Cromwell and Communism, pp. 19, 86, 97.
87 Bernstein, Cromwell and Communism, p. 188.
88 Saxton, “Marxism, Labor, and the Failed Critique of Religion,”
p. 308.
89 Bibby, Restless Gods.
