Cultic Studies Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1991, Page 18
Catholic church, prevented significant opposition to the development of new sects and the
cults.
In the twentieth century the industrialization of Europe, which led to greater national
homogeneity and the subsequent threat of "de-Christianization," encouraged the movement
toward either more traditional Catholicism or the growth of fundamentalist Pentecostal
sects31. Furthermore, the gradual separation of church and state, completed in western
Europe by the beginning of the twentieth century, weakened a traditional bulwark against the
growth of new sects and cults. The groundwork was prepared for the transatlantic transfer of
sects and cults, and then throughout the world, especially as the technology of communi-
cation and transportation made ideas and missionaries so accessible.
The millenarian movements in particular flourished. Some, such as the Mormons, the Seventh
Day Adventists, and the Jehovah‟s Witnesses, gradually became a part of mainstream
American religions and then spread to the European continent as the forces of secularism
eroded the strength of the dominant churches. The Watchtower movement, indeed,
penetrated throughout Europe32.
Comparison of Past and Present Cults and Sects
Just as in the past cults drew upon the religious principles and attitudes of the time, so do the
present ones. Contemporary cults promise salvation, often preaching anti-materialistic
principles to appeal to members of the counterculture. They incorporate Eastern themes of
meditation and peace. Some psychotherapeutic ones promise new self-esteem and worldly
success. They feed not only upon common beliefs but also upon the hopes and fears of the
times. Leaders compile a syncretic vision, drawing upon existing theological and social
doctrines which are reordered and redefined to adapt to prevailing frustrations33.
The contemporary cults, as did their predecessors, engender popular and legal opposition
within their communities. Past opposition rested upon legal quarrels and policies of the cults,
especially those that threatened prevailing traditions. Jehovah‟s Witnesses were engaged in
courtroom actions over their refusal to salute the flag or take loyalty oaths. They were bitterly
persecuted by the Nazis. Like the Christian Scientists34, they were and are subjected to legal
action because of their refusal to accept scientific medical care.
There is no doubt that many of the groups that we regard as eccentric, sometimes quaint or
odd, were perceived in the context of their own time as cults. They were considered
dangerous and antisocial their leaders were thought to be self-serving. Mostly, as is
sometimes the case today, these cults passed quickly into oblivion. If their membership was
small, largely poor or lower middle class, and their resources meager, they presented little or
no threat to the established society. This, of course, did not apply to groups like the Mormons
or Seventh Day Adventists.
Proselytization by Mormons was zealous. Their financial profits from the growth of their
membership became prodigious and led to resentment. Moreover, practices such as polygamy
and the separation of families when joining the commune produced even more distaste. (It is
interesting to note that today a sect of the Mormon church is still in conflict over the issue of
polygamy.) Instances of openly hostile persecution and ugly violence pervaded the
relationship between the community and the Mormons. Only when the Mormons moved into
the unpopulated West, abandoned polygamy, reduced their proselytization to more
reasonable levels, and institutionalized their religious teachings did the cult become
acceptable as a sect or church.
Many contemporary cults have aroused the same antipathy because of proselytization
techniques that often smack of deception and brainwashing, fund-raising that is fraudulent,
and behavior of members that sometimes constitutes a public nuisance35.

Cultic Studies Journal, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1991, Page 19
It is probable that some of the cults of the past pursued overly zealous methods and
pressures in proselytization, that some communes and sects used pressures that resemble
present-day "brainwashing," but there is little evidence indicating high levels of fraud and
deception. For example, in the sect Church of God, the preacher A.J. Tomlinson was almost a
dictator. After his ouster (under scandalous circumstances) the church remained highly
authoritarian in its governance, but deception in proselytization was never practiced
extensively36. While many churches and groups rigorously denied the right of dissent within
their congregations, members knowingly accepted these regulations.
Several modern cults, on the other hand, such as the Unification Church, Hare Krishna, Divine
Light Mission, and Children of God, have adopted the worst features of the past. Sometimes
the leadership has been demented (e.g., Charles Manson, Jim Jones) or corrupt (e,g, the
Reverend Moon, Guru Maharaj Ji, Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh) and members have been
exploited and manipulated for the benefit of these leaders.
In the turbulent 1970s and even into the 1980s cults used both fraud and dishonest
techniques of recruiting over and above ardent proselytization and some exerted extreme
psychological pressures37. Their methods, derived from the discipline of earlier religious sects,
focused on ritual, chanting, special diet, sleep deprivation, and above all separation from
family and the community. The imposition of humility and sometimes the use of public
confession lowered self-esteem and were especially effective in creating dependency. In some
cults marriage and family were subjected to scrutiny and supervision. By demanding total
immersion into the cult, cult leaders created social cohesion and the psychological pressure
that ensured enduring commitment.
Some groups, such as Father Divine‟s and the Hare Krishna, demanded that after conversion
and "rebirth" members accept new names and identities. Missionary claims of salvation
appealed to the psychologically vulnerable, those who were facing loneliness, the loss of loved
ones, new decisions, and other major life crises. To those idealists disillusioned or disgruntled
with materialism, the cults provided the promise of experiential social work. Through
techniques of love-bombing, new friendships, and bonding, the recruit found new meaning,
solace, and often an end to depression or despair, and sometimes a substitute for drug
addiction. The family‟s anguish was exacerbated by the separation from their adult children
in cults and by the knowledge that their children often relinquished schools or careers38.
Modern leaders acquired more sophisticated techniques in persuasion and indoctrination,
abetted by skillful use of the media. The result was heightened anxiety within the community
at large, represented by protests and parents‟ attempts to kidnap and "deprogram" their
children. The number of young middle-class adults in college who had forsaken their families,
their careers, and their futures alarmed the church, the synagogue, the community, and
especially the family. Moreover, some cults were very wealthy their leaders lived in luxury
while their members were given the most menial and demanding work, forced to live at the
poverty level. Even more frightening has been the violence that cult leaders have been able
to promote, either against themselves or the outside society. The Jonestown massacre is an
example of violence perpetrated against its own members whereas Charles Manson and his
cult murdered outsiders. Move provoked so much opposition that it led to societal violence.
There were also instances of terrorist violence by socio-political groups such as the
Weathermen, the Baader-Meinhof gang, and the Symbionese Liberation Army.
In Europe the astounding appeal of these cultic groups was addressed in a resolution
proposed by the European Parliament in March 1982. The legislators advocated that the
media expose cult activity as much as possible, that governments refuse tax, charity, and
other benefits to cults, and that regular reports should be made concerning the activities of
cults that represent a "threat to society"39. While mainstream church groups were upset and