Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2005, Page 17
how much they could take before they eventually rejected her. When they did finally leave,
she concluded that of course that would happen, all men eventually leave her as her father
did.
Conclusion
The 40 adults who participated in this study described their parents in much the same terms
that cult leaders are described. These parents required excessive devotion and utilized a
range of strategies in order to cultivate their children‘s dependence on them. The perceived
impact of the alienation as described by the participants matched many of the outcomes
associated with cult involvement. These findings should provide a useful framework for
adults who were alienated from a parent as a child and for clinicians working with this
population.
Limitations of Study
Several methodological limitations need to be noted. First, a retrospective design was
utilized which did not allow for a determination of causality. That is, although the
participants described the outcomes of the alienation from their perspective, it cannot be
known whether in fact such associations exist. In particular, many of the outcomes
described (low self esteem, lack of trust) may be due to the divorce per se rather than the
alienation more specifically. Without a comparison group of adult children of divorce who did
not experience parental alienation, it is not possible to determine the alienation-specific
outcomes. However, to the extent that the study aims to describe the participants‘ felt
experience, the findings can be considered valid. Another limitation is that the participants
varied in their age at the time of the interview. Thus, some had not had a chance yet to
experience all of the possible negative outcomes described above. For example, a nineteen
year-old participant had less time to experience depression or guilt than say a 60-year-old
participant. In that respect, the findings may under-represent the negative outcomes of
parental alienation. Additionally, it is quite likely that there are many adults who were
alienated from a parent and were not aware of the fact that they had been manipulated by
their parent. There is no way to ascertain the outcomes for these adults. Thus, part of the
outcomes described above may be due to the awareness of the experience rather than to
the experience itself. And, finally, the motivations and experiences of the alienating parent
were not directly assessed. The only source of data was the perceptions, beliefs, and
memories of the adult children. For example, it is possible that the alienating parents
suffered as well and that there may have been some justification for the negative
statements made about the targeted parent.
Future Research and Practical Implications
Despite the limitations noted above, the findings presented in this paper represent the first
glimpse at the felt experience of adults who experienced parental alienation as children. To
that extent they can be used to develop hypotheses that can be tested in future research.
In particular, three directions for future research suggest themselves. First, a longitudinal
study of divorced families would be very helpful for determining the proportion in which
alienation occurs. To date, there are no empirically-based estimates of this phenomenon.
Gauging the magnitude of the problem could attract more researchers to the field as well as
lead to increased funding opportunities. Second, a large-scale quantitative study of adults
who were alienated as children could be undertaken to extend the outcome findings
reported here. Standardized measures of depression, drug use, self-esteem and other
outcomes could be administered in order to determine the rates of these experiences in the
sample. A third direction for future research would be a study of the adults (both targeted
and alienated) in order to understand the phenomenon from their perspective. For example,
it is likely that targeted parents are aware of a broader range of strategies used against
them than the children.

Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2005, Page 18
In the meantime, these findings may be useful to clinicians working with adults who
experienced parental alienation as a child. The participants in this study seemed to believe
that what they experienced was so unusual and idiosyncratic as to defy classification or
categorization. It is possible that utilizing the heuristic of cults may provide them with a
framework for understanding their experience and their response to it. A body of knowledge
has been developed about cult leaders and the strategies they use which may help the adult
children of parental alienation feel connected to a larger group and may provide them with a
way to think about their parents and themselves that facilitates recovery and growth.
Parents who are currently losing a child to an alienating parent may also find this framework
useful for understanding the changes they see in their children. For these reasons the
current findings should be used to spur future research and could inform practice as deemed
useful by clinicians currently working with those affected by parental alienation.
Notes
1 Other definitions of cults exist although none is definitive. See Langone (2004) and McKibben,
Lynn, and Malinoski, (2002) for a discussion of definitional issues.
2 This section was eliminated for the participants whose parents never separated/divorced.
3 Although Ofshe (1992) argues that the beliefs adopted may be situationally based and discarded
once the person is removed from the environment.
4 They also experienced other outcomes that may be unique to parental alienation (Baker, 2004).
References
Ainsworth, M., Blehar, M.C., Waters, E., Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A study of
the strange situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Amato, P.R. (1994). Life-span adjustment to their parents‘ divorce. The Future of Children,
4, 143-165.
Baker, A.J.L. (in press). The long-term effects of parental alienation on adult children: A
qualitative research study. American Journal of Family Therapy.
Berg, B.L. (1998). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Loss. New York: Basic Books.
Darnall, D. (1998). Divorce casualties: Protecting your children from parental alienation.
Dallas: Taylor Publishing.
Festinger, L. (1957). Theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University
Press.
Gardner, R. (1998). The parental alienation syndrome: A guide for mental health and legal
professionals. Cresskill, NJ: Creative Therapeutics.
Garrity, C.B., &Baris, M.A. (1994). Caught in the middle: Protecting the children from high
conflict divorce. New York: Lexington Books.
Goldberg, L., &Goldberg, W. (1988). Psychotherapy with ex-cultists: Four case studies and
commentary. Cultic Studies Journal, 5, 193-210.
Golomb, E. (1992). Trapped in the mirror: Adult children of narcissists in their struggle for
self. NY: William Morrow.
Greenberg, J.R., &Mitchell, S.A. (1983). Object relations in psychoanalytic theory.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hassan, S. (1988). Combating cult mind control. Rochester, VT: Park Street Press.
Johnston, J. (1994). High conflict divorce. The Future of Children, 4, 165-182.
Kent, S.A. (2004). Generational revolt by the adult children of first-generation members of
the children of God/family. Cultic Studies Review, 3 (1).
Kubler-Ross, E. (1997). On death and dying. New York: Scribner.
Kvale, S. (1996). InterViews: An introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications.