International Journal of Cultic Studies ■ Vol. 9, 2018 51
important difference is that, in the Gasde and
Block study, participants were from only one
religious group. The answers of those
participants, therefore, reflect only differences in
how they had comprehended the conditions in
one organization, while in the present study and
the Winocur-Craig (1995) study, many different
movements were represented. The different
results may suggest that the type of group or cult
may be important for the psychological and even
psychiatric consequences on those participating
in a cult.
Psychological Distress Related to the Number
of Years As Active Members in the Group
In this study we found no association between
number of years participants were active in a
group and their levels of psychological distress.
These findings are in line with the main result in
Gasde and Block (1998) and in Walsh et al.
(1995).
Walsh et al. (1995) argued that the longer the
time one spent active in the group, the more
pervasive the psychological problems of the
individual would be, provided that the
conditions in the group had caused the
psychological distress. This provision is
important because the greater number of years in
the group does not imply that the psychological
abuse has been worse. Another caveat is that the
number of years in the group does not represent
how much time has been spent in the group's
activities and how important the group, its
doctrine, and the leaders have been to the
individual. Furthermore, it is possible that the
influence of the psychological abuse on the
individual's psychological well-being occurs
quite early, after the initial attention and “love-
bombing” that new members sometimes
experience. The first stage in the indoctrination
process (Baron, 2000), which is a common
feature of cultic or abusive groups, contains
several aspects that can break down a person’s
identity and create fear and mental exhaustion.
These processes may be less influential after the
initial period.
Psychological Well-Being and Years Since
Defection
In the present study, the number of years since
their defection could not predict the
psychological well-being among former cult
members. This finding differs from those in
Gasde and Block (1998) and Walsh et al. (1995).
In the present study, most of the participants
were identified through two Swedish support
groups for former cult members, which was not
the case for the participants in Gasde and Block
(1998) and Walsh et al. (1995). It is a reasonable
assumption that those who are active in support
groups, even if many years have passed since
their defection, still have problems they attribute
to their time in the group. Therefore, the
participants in this study were probably those
who had problems they attributed to their time in
the group, irrespective of whether they had left
the group recently or a long time ago. The
results might have been different if the
participants had represented both former cult
members who sought support and those who did
not. Moreover, in the present study, most of the
participants had been members of the Jehovah’s
Witnesses. Individuals with that orientation were
not represented in previous studies (Gasde &
Block, 1998 Walshe et al., 1995), and this
might have contributed to the different results.
However, the result that the number of years
since their defection could not predict the
psychological well-being among former cult
members shows that some former cult members
need support, either from support groups or
healthcare, even if many years have passed since
their defection, a conclusion that Järvå (2009)
also pointed out.
Psychological Well-Being Among Former Cult
Members Compared With Normal Population
and Clinical Group
We found in this study that former cult members
had more psychological problems than the
normal population. This result supports previous
research (e.g., Aronoff et al., 2000 Buxant &
Saroglou, 2008 Gasde &Block, 1998). The
difference between the former cult members and
the normal population was greatest as reflected
in the Risk subscale. Although the participants
reported better psychological well-being than a
important difference is that, in the Gasde and
Block study, participants were from only one
religious group. The answers of those
participants, therefore, reflect only differences in
how they had comprehended the conditions in
one organization, while in the present study and
the Winocur-Craig (1995) study, many different
movements were represented. The different
results may suggest that the type of group or cult
may be important for the psychological and even
psychiatric consequences on those participating
in a cult.
Psychological Distress Related to the Number
of Years As Active Members in the Group
In this study we found no association between
number of years participants were active in a
group and their levels of psychological distress.
These findings are in line with the main result in
Gasde and Block (1998) and in Walsh et al.
(1995).
Walsh et al. (1995) argued that the longer the
time one spent active in the group, the more
pervasive the psychological problems of the
individual would be, provided that the
conditions in the group had caused the
psychological distress. This provision is
important because the greater number of years in
the group does not imply that the psychological
abuse has been worse. Another caveat is that the
number of years in the group does not represent
how much time has been spent in the group's
activities and how important the group, its
doctrine, and the leaders have been to the
individual. Furthermore, it is possible that the
influence of the psychological abuse on the
individual's psychological well-being occurs
quite early, after the initial attention and “love-
bombing” that new members sometimes
experience. The first stage in the indoctrination
process (Baron, 2000), which is a common
feature of cultic or abusive groups, contains
several aspects that can break down a person’s
identity and create fear and mental exhaustion.
These processes may be less influential after the
initial period.
Psychological Well-Being and Years Since
Defection
In the present study, the number of years since
their defection could not predict the
psychological well-being among former cult
members. This finding differs from those in
Gasde and Block (1998) and Walsh et al. (1995).
In the present study, most of the participants
were identified through two Swedish support
groups for former cult members, which was not
the case for the participants in Gasde and Block
(1998) and Walsh et al. (1995). It is a reasonable
assumption that those who are active in support
groups, even if many years have passed since
their defection, still have problems they attribute
to their time in the group. Therefore, the
participants in this study were probably those
who had problems they attributed to their time in
the group, irrespective of whether they had left
the group recently or a long time ago. The
results might have been different if the
participants had represented both former cult
members who sought support and those who did
not. Moreover, in the present study, most of the
participants had been members of the Jehovah’s
Witnesses. Individuals with that orientation were
not represented in previous studies (Gasde &
Block, 1998 Walshe et al., 1995), and this
might have contributed to the different results.
However, the result that the number of years
since their defection could not predict the
psychological well-being among former cult
members shows that some former cult members
need support, either from support groups or
healthcare, even if many years have passed since
their defection, a conclusion that Järvå (2009)
also pointed out.
Psychological Well-Being Among Former Cult
Members Compared With Normal Population
and Clinical Group
We found in this study that former cult members
had more psychological problems than the
normal population. This result supports previous
research (e.g., Aronoff et al., 2000 Buxant &
Saroglou, 2008 Gasde &Block, 1998). The
difference between the former cult members and
the normal population was greatest as reflected
in the Risk subscale. Although the participants
reported better psychological well-being than a
