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Changing – once destabilized, the individual needed to restore equilibrium. The induced
―identity crisis‖ was resolved through the acceptance of new beliefs and attitudes. The
prisoner searched the environment and found a new identity in the cellmates and
interrogators.
Refreezing – the new belief system had to be constantly reinforced. As the sense of self is
largely constructed via our interactions with others, the Communist interrogators demanded
the constant reading of propaganda, competition between cellmates to excel in the study of
materials, etc. The individual was thus ―reborn‖ and his new identity nurtured and
rewarded.
The results ―brainwashing‖ were mixed rarely did former prisoners retain Communist
sympathies for long upon release. Their changed behavior was environment-dependent.
We see, then, the following important similarities between victims of thought reform
(whether prisoners of war or cult members) and domestic violence:
 A destabilizing of self
 An instillation of new beliefs about self and the world
 An environment that reinforces the new beliefs and a tendency to return to the previous
self once out of the controlling environment (although the process may take years).
A significant body of literature suggests that victims of prolonged emotional and
psychological coercion, such as outlined above, undergo a personality transformation to
cope with the self-fragmentation (Herman, 1992 Cushman, 1986 Boulette &Anderson,
1985). West and Martin (1994) use the term ―pseudo-identity‖ to describe this effect. Other
terms, such as ―identification with the aggressor‖ and ―Stockholm syndrome‖ have been
used to represent that radical transformation of personality in the face of overwhelming
trauma. In the domestic violence literature the ―battered woman syndrome‖ has been put
forth as a regularly recognizable set of symptoms that are produced by a violent, controlling
environment (Walker, 1993).
Is a domestic violence milieu a cult? If one defines a cult in behavioral terms, as I have, the
answer is ―yes,‖ and it is appropriate to call battered relationships ―cultic relationships.‖
Moreover, other ―nondomestic‖ relationships may be cultic in their dynamics, e.g.,
psychotherapy cults (Singer, Langone, &Temerlin, 1991).
A colleague recently asked if cults are patriarchal. Many do run along patriarchal lines and
research suggests that the majority of victims are female (see, for example, Chambers et
al., 1994, which found that 64% of members were female). While this aspect of the issue
deserves a paper in its own right, it is noteworthy that many of the power relations that
women experience in wider society are mirrored in the cultic systems we have discussed
here. Although I have here highlighted the environmental and psychological aspects of the
phenomenon, I reiterate the importance of including a political lens in addressing the
problem. The parallels I have drawn in this paper do have limitations, and in both the
domestic violence literature (Rhodes &McKenzie, 1998) and the cult literature (Zablocki,
1997), there debate continues.
Implications for Therapy
I have found three parallel issues that need to be addressed by both victims of relational
violence and cultic abuse (Ward, 2000):
Concept of Self
As previously mentioned, cultic relationships attempt to modify that part of us we call ―self.‖
Largely molded by our interactions with others and the immediate environment during our

Cultic Studies Journal, Volume 17, 2000, Page 38
early years, our self-concept can nonetheless be manipulated in adult life. This is forcefully
demonstrated in cultic relationships, where an individual‘s worth is measured by the degree
of obedience to the leader/perpetrator. I have found again and again that women who have
left violent relationships and individuals who have left a destructive group continue to
demonstrate a strong sense of loyalty to the perpetrator(s). For the individual concerned,
this can be a source of confusion and stress. How could they ―choose‖ to remain in such an
abusive environment, and what is worse, miss it? I have personally found it useful in
counseling a victim of domestic violence to briefly go over cult dynamics and draw parallels.
Initially, I may not use terminology that belongs to the cult literature, but instead talk about
the experiences of others whom I have heard about. Not until the woman makes some link
to her experience, do I mention that the information given draws from ―brainwashing‖ and
―cult mind control‖ theories. Women find it liberating to discover that she is ―not going
crazy,‖ and that anyone else in the same environment may well have behaved and felt the
same. Likewise, for some who find it inconceivable that they were in a cult, I might review
some dynamics of violent relationships (environmental control, control of resources,
manipulation with fear and guilt, etc) and gently draw parallels and implications.
Triggers
Both populations have described uncomfortable situations, ranging from the annoying to the
terrifying, in describing cues that remind them of the past abusive relationship. For the
partner who leaves the violent spouse, it may be innocent mannerisms from a new partner.
It may be conversations or behaviors from the children. It may be simply thinking about
spending some money on oneself. For the ex-cultist, it often depends on the nature of the
group left behind. For Bible-based groups, church buildings, bibles, or religious dates may
be troublesome. The author once supported an individual who came out of a high-control
group. She found that simply using modern appliances around the home and eating take-
out foods created discomfort. With both populations, the author has noticed that language
reminiscent of the abuse may be particularly triggering.
In each case, a series of educational sessions on the nature of cult/violence dynamics may
prove useful. Once triggers are named for what they are, namely associated stimuli, the
dismantling of the triggers can begin and new associations can be created. Once again, it is
important to normalize such presenting issues as typical responses internalized from an
abusive environment.
Grief and Loss
Individuals who have left a violent partner often feel:
 Loss of financial stability
 Loss of the ―family unit‖
 Loss of opportunities
 Grief over the impact on the children
 Grief over the ―wasted years‖ while with the partner.
People who leave toxic groups have similar experiences of loss:
 Loss over family still in the group
 Loss over assets lost to the group
 Loss over the sense of mission and purpose
 Loss over finding out, ―it was all a lie.‖
―Starting again‖ is a common presenting problem to both populations. For some, the pain
will be around family issues for others it could be finding a job and ―starting from scratch.‖
Here, however, is an opportunity for self-empowerment (Dahlen, 1997). With both
populations, there is the risk that the therapist could fill the void left by the perpetrator/cult.