Cultic Studies Review, Vol. 5, No. 6, 2006, Page 5
In the past decade, much has been written on this topic of the psychobiology of trauma a
review of that literature is beyond the scope of this article (for some excellent
comprehensive review articles, see van der Kolk, 2003 Bremner, 2003 and Perry, 2002).
Thus, I have chosen to focus on specific aspects of the psychobiology of trauma—i.e., affect
regulation, the stress responses, and information processing as important consequences of
child maltreatment.
Affect Regulation
Some of the most robust findings in the psychopathology literature are the negative effects
of maltreatment on the child‘s (and later the adult‘s) ability to regulate his/her emotions.
Without affect regulation, dealing with life‘s ups and downs becomes a daily roller coaster
ride that has an impact upon all aspects of a person‘s life. Affect regulation refers to the
ability to soothe and comfort oneself when one is agitated or anxious, as well as the ability
to enliven oneself when one is depressed, bored, or dissociated (i.e., to regulate up or
down, respectively). From a neurobiological standpoint, affect regulation can be seen as at
the core of healthy development and affect dysregulation as at the core of psychopathology.
Symptoms such as anxiety, panic attacks, or depression can be conceptualized as failures of
regulation. Coping and defense mechanisms can be viewed as strategies to regulate affect
and return the organism to a state of homeostasis (Applegate &Shapiro, 2005).
Thus, we have an affect-regulation spectrum. On the adaptive end are coping mechanisms,
such as exercising, listening to music, or doodling during a long lecture. At the dysfunctional
end of the spectrum are addictions (alcoholism, drug abuse) and other maladaptive
behaviors such as fighting.
There are times, however, when even the healthiest person cannot manage to shift
her/himself out of a dysregulated state, and in that case s/he needs to be able to reach out
to others for this kind of assistance. People who are unable to do so would live a very
schizoid existence. Likewise, people who always use others to help shift them out of
dysregulated states—i.e., who are incapable of self-regulation—wear out their friends and
family, and might be viewed as having a dependent or borderline personality disorder. In
summary then, the ability to both self- and other-regulate are hallmarks of good mental
health.
These hallmarks of good mental health should not be construed absolutely, for cultural
contexts will influence what is considered to be healthy or dysfunctional. In some Asian
cultures, for instance, there may be greater pressure to self-regulate other-regulation
might be seen as shameful or pathological.
The Stress Response
Childhood abuse and neglect damage the ability for affect regulation. To better understand
this, we need to understand the physiology of the normal stress response. We‘ve inherited
this response from our reptilian ancestors, and our fight/flight/freeze reactions are rooted in
a primitive part of our brain, primarily the amygdala. (The less-known freeze response is
exemplified by the ―deer in the headlights‖ phenomenon, another survival mechanism we
acquired from our animal ancestors. A predator was less likely to attack a ―dead‖ animal, so
a trapped animal would become immobile to simulate that state. Additionally, a freeze state
is a dissociated one.)
Neurochemicals
A simple explanation for the normal stress response is as follows: Faced with immediate
danger, the body pumps out the adrenaline hormones known as cortisol and epinephrine.
Epinephrine is fast acting, efficient, and short lasting in contrast, cortisol is slower to rise
but stays in the blood stream longer. These hormones go to our heart, which begins beating
In the past decade, much has been written on this topic of the psychobiology of trauma a
review of that literature is beyond the scope of this article (for some excellent
comprehensive review articles, see van der Kolk, 2003 Bremner, 2003 and Perry, 2002).
Thus, I have chosen to focus on specific aspects of the psychobiology of trauma—i.e., affect
regulation, the stress responses, and information processing as important consequences of
child maltreatment.
Affect Regulation
Some of the most robust findings in the psychopathology literature are the negative effects
of maltreatment on the child‘s (and later the adult‘s) ability to regulate his/her emotions.
Without affect regulation, dealing with life‘s ups and downs becomes a daily roller coaster
ride that has an impact upon all aspects of a person‘s life. Affect regulation refers to the
ability to soothe and comfort oneself when one is agitated or anxious, as well as the ability
to enliven oneself when one is depressed, bored, or dissociated (i.e., to regulate up or
down, respectively). From a neurobiological standpoint, affect regulation can be seen as at
the core of healthy development and affect dysregulation as at the core of psychopathology.
Symptoms such as anxiety, panic attacks, or depression can be conceptualized as failures of
regulation. Coping and defense mechanisms can be viewed as strategies to regulate affect
and return the organism to a state of homeostasis (Applegate &Shapiro, 2005).
Thus, we have an affect-regulation spectrum. On the adaptive end are coping mechanisms,
such as exercising, listening to music, or doodling during a long lecture. At the dysfunctional
end of the spectrum are addictions (alcoholism, drug abuse) and other maladaptive
behaviors such as fighting.
There are times, however, when even the healthiest person cannot manage to shift
her/himself out of a dysregulated state, and in that case s/he needs to be able to reach out
to others for this kind of assistance. People who are unable to do so would live a very
schizoid existence. Likewise, people who always use others to help shift them out of
dysregulated states—i.e., who are incapable of self-regulation—wear out their friends and
family, and might be viewed as having a dependent or borderline personality disorder. In
summary then, the ability to both self- and other-regulate are hallmarks of good mental
health.
These hallmarks of good mental health should not be construed absolutely, for cultural
contexts will influence what is considered to be healthy or dysfunctional. In some Asian
cultures, for instance, there may be greater pressure to self-regulate other-regulation
might be seen as shameful or pathological.
The Stress Response
Childhood abuse and neglect damage the ability for affect regulation. To better understand
this, we need to understand the physiology of the normal stress response. We‘ve inherited
this response from our reptilian ancestors, and our fight/flight/freeze reactions are rooted in
a primitive part of our brain, primarily the amygdala. (The less-known freeze response is
exemplified by the ―deer in the headlights‖ phenomenon, another survival mechanism we
acquired from our animal ancestors. A predator was less likely to attack a ―dead‖ animal, so
a trapped animal would become immobile to simulate that state. Additionally, a freeze state
is a dissociated one.)
Neurochemicals
A simple explanation for the normal stress response is as follows: Faced with immediate
danger, the body pumps out the adrenaline hormones known as cortisol and epinephrine.
Epinephrine is fast acting, efficient, and short lasting in contrast, cortisol is slower to rise
but stays in the blood stream longer. These hormones go to our heart, which begins beating
