International Journal of Coercion, Abuse, and Manipulation Volume 3 2022 22
Do these three separate incidents demonstrate a synergy
between a strictly religious cults, or strictly terrorist
organizations? For the Rajneeshees, Hezbollah, and
People’s Temple, was the designation of religious cult
or terror organization mutually exclusive? Previous
research has elucidated that both religious cults and
terror organizations typically have strong, controlling
leaders. They both have membership-vetting-and-
pruning processes. Both have grievance narratives and
end-state goals. And both believe in or follow processes
that differ from the status quo.
This present systematic review aims to examine the
separate bodies of research of both religious cults and
terror organizations, specifically in regard to their
recruitment strategies. I have chosen recruitment
strategies to help address the intelligence gaps that exist
on this topic in the terrorism space this focus allows
for a further examination of the similarities between
cults and terrorist groups.
Method
I completed a literature search of research that
discussed recruitment processes of religious cults and
terror organizations. I carried out the search using
the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
checklist (Moher et al., 2009). I chose to use the PRISMA
because of its practical nature for systematic reviews
and my familiarity with it from previous research. I
searched the following databases: a) Web of Science,
b) PsychInfo, c) MEDLINE, d) National Association
of Social Services Workers [NASW] abstract database,
and e) Homeland Security Digital Library. In addition,
I conducted searches through special reserves of the
International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) and
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
I used the inclusive search terms recruit*, cult*, and
terror*,specifically looking at articles published
after 1960. Then I critically examined the results. I
documented, summarized, and grouped substantive,
relevant articles together in a narrative fashion in the
following content.
Cults and Cult Recruitment
Cults are “high-demand group[s]” (Langone, 2019a, p.
6) that are best thought of as being on a continuum in
contrast to a cult/noncult threshold (Whitney, 2016).
Deception, manipulation, and potential harm are close
to the cult end of this continuum. Other factors, such as
strong, assertive leaders, are somewhere in the middle
of the continuum and often are parallel to mainstream
religious organizations.
Many people incorrectly associate cults with or believe
that they all end like Jonestown or Heaven’s Gate.
However, cults do not always end with members
committing suicide or other violence (Lalich, 2009
Langone, 2019a). Cult members do often experience
psychological trauma as a result of their involvement.
Although that trauma may be triggered by a variety of
causes, cults lack accountability mechanisms to handle
or respond to the harm they cause (Langone, 2001).
Cults often also create economic, physical, or spiritual
harm against their members.
Researchers have explored generalized recruitment
strategies used by religious cults. For example, Wexler
(2016) summarized cult recruitment as reducing “the
critics’ interference by culling the target sample into
pools” (p. 37). Cults often employ overt deception
to prevent potential recruits from knowing the true
nature of the organization (Langone, 2001 Wexler,
2016). Such groups may use imagery or public
discourses to communicate with unsuspecting
individuals (Miyamoto, 2014). These groups may
even “love-bomb” potential targets—t individuals
are showered with affection and attention in order to
gain compliance (Davis, 2018, para. 5). Zimbardo and
Hartley (1985) also suggested that predispositions or
precontact variables (e.g., gender, race) may set a stage
for recruiters.
Individuals targeted for recruitment also vary. Cults
often target people who are stressed or vulnerable in
other ways for recruitment (Curtis &Curtis, 1993
Davis, 2018 Levine, 1999 Schwartz, 2001). Recruiters
may target senior adults or those with limited support
structures, especially those who are looking for ways to
do good for others (Schwartz, 2001). Groups frequently
target youth, often considered more susceptible to
manipulation (Levine, 1999 Miyamoto, 2014). As an
example, Zimbardo and Hartley (1985) found that a
surprising number of high-school-aged participants
already had previous contact with cult members or
Do these three separate incidents demonstrate a synergy
between a strictly religious cults, or strictly terrorist
organizations? For the Rajneeshees, Hezbollah, and
People’s Temple, was the designation of religious cult
or terror organization mutually exclusive? Previous
research has elucidated that both religious cults and
terror organizations typically have strong, controlling
leaders. They both have membership-vetting-and-
pruning processes. Both have grievance narratives and
end-state goals. And both believe in or follow processes
that differ from the status quo.
This present systematic review aims to examine the
separate bodies of research of both religious cults and
terror organizations, specifically in regard to their
recruitment strategies. I have chosen recruitment
strategies to help address the intelligence gaps that exist
on this topic in the terrorism space this focus allows
for a further examination of the similarities between
cults and terrorist groups.
Method
I completed a literature search of research that
discussed recruitment processes of religious cults and
terror organizations. I carried out the search using
the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
checklist (Moher et al., 2009). I chose to use the PRISMA
because of its practical nature for systematic reviews
and my familiarity with it from previous research. I
searched the following databases: a) Web of Science,
b) PsychInfo, c) MEDLINE, d) National Association
of Social Services Workers [NASW] abstract database,
and e) Homeland Security Digital Library. In addition,
I conducted searches through special reserves of the
International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) and
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
I used the inclusive search terms recruit*, cult*, and
terror*,specifically looking at articles published
after 1960. Then I critically examined the results. I
documented, summarized, and grouped substantive,
relevant articles together in a narrative fashion in the
following content.
Cults and Cult Recruitment
Cults are “high-demand group[s]” (Langone, 2019a, p.
6) that are best thought of as being on a continuum in
contrast to a cult/noncult threshold (Whitney, 2016).
Deception, manipulation, and potential harm are close
to the cult end of this continuum. Other factors, such as
strong, assertive leaders, are somewhere in the middle
of the continuum and often are parallel to mainstream
religious organizations.
Many people incorrectly associate cults with or believe
that they all end like Jonestown or Heaven’s Gate.
However, cults do not always end with members
committing suicide or other violence (Lalich, 2009
Langone, 2019a). Cult members do often experience
psychological trauma as a result of their involvement.
Although that trauma may be triggered by a variety of
causes, cults lack accountability mechanisms to handle
or respond to the harm they cause (Langone, 2001).
Cults often also create economic, physical, or spiritual
harm against their members.
Researchers have explored generalized recruitment
strategies used by religious cults. For example, Wexler
(2016) summarized cult recruitment as reducing “the
critics’ interference by culling the target sample into
pools” (p. 37). Cults often employ overt deception
to prevent potential recruits from knowing the true
nature of the organization (Langone, 2001 Wexler,
2016). Such groups may use imagery or public
discourses to communicate with unsuspecting
individuals (Miyamoto, 2014). These groups may
even “love-bomb” potential targets—t individuals
are showered with affection and attention in order to
gain compliance (Davis, 2018, para. 5). Zimbardo and
Hartley (1985) also suggested that predispositions or
precontact variables (e.g., gender, race) may set a stage
for recruiters.
Individuals targeted for recruitment also vary. Cults
often target people who are stressed or vulnerable in
other ways for recruitment (Curtis &Curtis, 1993
Davis, 2018 Levine, 1999 Schwartz, 2001). Recruiters
may target senior adults or those with limited support
structures, especially those who are looking for ways to
do good for others (Schwartz, 2001). Groups frequently
target youth, often considered more susceptible to
manipulation (Levine, 1999 Miyamoto, 2014). As an
example, Zimbardo and Hartley (1985) found that a
surprising number of high-school-aged participants
already had previous contact with cult members or
