International Journal of Coercion, Abuse, and Manipulation Volume 3 2022 22
Do these three separate incidents demonstrate a synergy
between a strictly religious cults, or strictly terrorist
organizations? For the Rajneeshees, Hezbollah, and
People’s Temple, was the designation of religious cult
or terror organization mutually exclusive? Previous
research has elucidated that both religious cults and
terror organizations typically have strong, controlling
leaders. They both have membership-vetting-and-
pruning processes. Both have grievance narratives and
end-state goals. And both believe in or follow processes
that differ from the status quo.
This present systematic review aims to examine the
separate bodies of research of both religious cults and
terror organizations, specifically in regard to their
recruitment strategies. I have chosen recruitment
strategies to help address the intelligence gaps that exist
on this topic in the terrorism space this focus allows
for a further examination of the similarities between
cults and terrorist groups.
Method
I completed a literature search of research that
discussed recruitment processes of religious cults and
terror organizations. I carried out the search using
the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA)
checklist (Moher et al., 2009). I chose to use the PRISMA
because of its practical nature for systematic reviews
and my familiarity with it from previous research. I
searched the following databases: a) Web of Science,
b) PsychInfo, c) MEDLINE, d) National Association
of Social Services Workers [NASW] abstract database,
and e) Homeland Security Digital Library. In addition,
I conducted searches through special reserves of the
International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) and
the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI).
I used the inclusive search terms recruit*, cult*, and
terror*,specifically looking at articles published
after 1960. Then I critically examined the results. I
documented, summarized, and grouped substantive,
relevant articles together in a narrative fashion in the
following content.
Cults and Cult Recruitment
Cults are “high-demand group[s]” (Langone, 2019a, p.
6) that are best thought of as being on a continuum in
contrast to a cult/noncult threshold (Whitney, 2016).
Deception, manipulation, and potential harm are close
to the cult end of this continuum. Other factors, such as
strong, assertive leaders, are somewhere in the middle
of the continuum and often are parallel to mainstream
religious organizations.
Many people incorrectly associate cults with or believe
that they all end like Jonestown or Heaven’s Gate.
However, cults do not always end with members
committing suicide or other violence (Lalich, 2009
Langone, 2019a). Cult members do often experience
psychological trauma as a result of their involvement.
Although that trauma may be triggered by a variety of
causes, cults lack accountability mechanisms to handle
or respond to the harm they cause (Langone, 2001).
Cults often also create economic, physical, or spiritual
harm against their members.
Researchers have explored generalized recruitment
strategies used by religious cults. For example, Wexler
(2016) summarized cult recruitment as reducing “the
critics’ interference by culling the target sample into
pools” (p. 37). Cults often employ overt deception
to prevent potential recruits from knowing the true
nature of the organization (Langone, 2001 Wexler,
2016). Such groups may use imagery or public
discourses to communicate with unsuspecting
individuals (Miyamoto, 2014). These groups may
even “love-bomb” potential targets—t individuals
are showered with affection and attention in order to
gain compliance (Davis, 2018, para. 5). Zimbardo and
Hartley (1985) also suggested that predispositions or
precontact variables (e.g., gender, race) may set a stage
for recruiters.
Individuals targeted for recruitment also vary. Cults
often target people who are stressed or vulnerable in
other ways for recruitment (Curtis &Curtis, 1993
Davis, 2018 Levine, 1999 Schwartz, 2001). Recruiters
may target senior adults or those with limited support
structures, especially those who are looking for ways to
do good for others (Schwartz, 2001). Groups frequently
target youth, often considered more susceptible to
manipulation (Levine, 1999 Miyamoto, 2014). As an
example, Zimbardo and Hartley (1985) found that a
surprising number of high-school-aged participants
already had previous contact with cult members or

ISSN: 2710-4028 DOI: https://doi.org/10.54208/0003 23
were receptive to attending a cult function if they
were invited. These participants were not uninformed
or gullible students rather, the researchers found
them to have average grades, lots of media exposure,
and moderate engagement in religious practices.
The participants were described as being “contact-
prone” or “affiliation prone” versus individuals who
were perceived either to have sought out or had been
manipulated into joining cults (Zimbardo &Hartley,
1985).
Stein (2017a, 2017b), Collins (1982), and many others
have suggested “brainwashing” as a component in the
recruitment process. Certainly cults have demonstrated
their remarkable ability to rapidly engage with the
disenfranchised, including in the People’s Temple
and the Branch Davidians (Challacombe, 2004).
Richardson (1993) argued that cults do not brainwash
people, but rather they facilitate individuals who are
already seeking out something new. Levine and Russo
(1987) found that new group members often have
the tendency to variably influence the majority group
members this finding suggests that recruits could
potentially mitigate a cult’s brainwashing techniques.
Overall, research would suggest that groups do
influence people to a great extent, regardless of whether
this influence is considered “brainwashing.”
Stein (2017a) also proposed that cult recruitment
sometimes involves isolation. Isolation is a reoccurring
theme among researchers (Davis, 2018 Kent, 2008).
Isolation occurs when new recruits are strongly
encouraged or forced to ignore their established support
structure or former lifestyle. Research has shown that
isolation is often easier for potential recruits since
many already had loose or weak ties to friends or family
(Richardson, 1993). And instead of physical isolation,
the isolation also may be in the form of censured news
or materials (Davis, 2018). The isolation in a cultic
environment facilitates and expedites the process
of engraining a grievance narrative or belief system
into the recruit (Kent, 2008 Richardson, 1993 Stein,
2017a).
Although individuals may be more susceptible to joining
a cult, researchers have shown individuals will usually
be interested before they are actively pursued (Stein,
2017a Zimbardo &Hartley, 1985). If individuals show
signs of interest, recruiters will then engage with them
in a way that shows them increased attention (Davis,
2018 Richardson, 19930. Once recruits indicate they
are truly interested in joining, the group then will
attempt to isolate and them in order to eventually
get them to recruit others as well (Miyamoto, 2014
Wexler, 2016). It is this process that appears to parallel
the recruitment process of other groups such as gangs,
political or racist groups, and terror organizations
(Schwartz, 2001).
Terror-Organization Recruitment
Terrorism has become more ubiquitous over time and
in recent years has impacted many areas of society,
including business, research, government, and
education (Silber &Bhatt, 2007). Terrorism has many
definitions, ranging from explicit to vague and general.
One more explicit definition considers terrorism “an
act of violence (domestic or international), usually
committed against noncombatants, and aimed to
achieve behavioral change and political objectives by
creating fear in a larger population” (Doosje et al., 2016,
p. 79). A broader definition summarizes terrorism as
the “communication of a message to a target audience”
(Mahmood &Jetter, 2020, p. 128). Both definitions
generalize terrorism acts as purposed to communicate
a message or change behavior or politics.
Over the past two decades terrorism has transformed
from established, coordinated groups to small cells or
even lone actors. In this space, lone actors are usually
individuals intent on committing acts of terrorism,
whereas a terror organization could be anything from
a loose affiliation of individuals to structured, state-
sponsored groups (Gill, 2016).
We are seeing an increase in homegrown terror, wherein
individuals are being encouraged to act on their own
(Bouhana et al., 2018 FBI, n.d. Gill, 2016 Sarat-St.
Peter, 2017). With this change, terrorism recruitment
and radicalization are frequently and incorrectly seen as
similar processes (Jones, 2017). For example, analogous
to recruitment into cultic activities, recruitment is the
movement of an individual to become part of a group,
whereas radicalization is considered the process in
which an individual exhibits more interest in an idea,
theory, or belief that the group stands for (Karakatsanis
&Herzog, 2016). Radicalization is also used to
describe political activities. The negative connotation